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Suggested parameters and sets of instructions outlining best practices and standards for accomplishing specific animal care and use research duties.
Guidelines on Anesthesia and Analgesia in Non-Human Primates
Unit for Laboratory Animal Medicine
| Approval Date:
February 21, 2025 12:00 am
Summary of Changes
This document has undergone a full content review. As a result, there have been changes to both the layout/format and content of the entire document. Changes include:
- Overall Updates:
- Updated and standardized language between anesthesia and analgesia guidelines for other species language based on current species used on campus.
- Updated drug dosages and perioperative recommendations based on current APV recommendations
- Re-organized information for ease of use and clarity
- Procedure section 1 (‘Specific Concerns in NHP Anesthesia’):
- Changed the name from ‘Prior to Anesthetic/Analgesic/Sedative Event’:
- Removed information in the section and updated the content to reflect current practice and more recent literature review
- Added information from part of Section 3 (formerly labelled Physiologic Support)
- Added Table 1 (‘Recommended Endotracheal Tube Sizes Based on Weight’)
- Procedure section 2 (‘Normal Monitoring Parameters‘):
- Re-organized information
- Removed information in the section and updated the content to reflect current practice and more recent literature review
- Added Table 2 (‘Vasopressors’)
- Updated Table 3 (‘Physiologic Data of Macaques’) to reflect the fact that we currently only have Macaques.
- Procedure section 3 (‘Recovery’), formerly labeled as section 4:
- Removed the information on Propofol or dexmedetomidine sedation and the use of cameras to enable remote monitoring
- Procedure section 4 (‘Sedatives’), formerly labeled as section 5:
- Removed the information on New World vs. Old World monkeys
- Updated Table 4 (‘Single Agent Sedation Dosage Information’)
- Removed the row for Acepromazine
- Updated Table 5 (‘Sedation Dosage Information (Combination Agents)
- Removed the row for Ketamine/Xylazine
- Changed the drug combination from Butorphanol/Dexmedetomidine to Butorphanol/Medetomidine
- Updated the dosage for Ketamine/ Diazepam from 15 mg/kg ketamine IM, 0.3-1 mg/kg diazepam IM to 5-15 mg/kg ketamine IM and 0.05-0.3 mg/kg midazolam IM
- Updated the Duration and Notes column to reflect current practice.
- Procedure section 5 (‘Anesthetics), formerly labeled as section 6:
- Removed information in the section on Anticholinergics, particularly the part on administering prior to or in conjunction with alpha-2 agonists
- Updated Table 6: Anticholinergics Dosage Information
- Updated the Notes column to reflect current practice.
- Updated Table 7: Injectable Anesthetics for Use with Intubation:
- Changed the name from Table: Injectable Anesthetics
- Added a new row for Fentanyl
- Removed the row for Pentobarbital
- Updated the dosage and route for Propofol/Fentanyl from 2.4-7.2 mg/kg/h Propofol and 10-25 mcg/kg/h fentanyl CRI to 2-10 mg/kg/h Propofol CRI and 5-10mcg/kg IV bolus followed by 2-5mcg/kg/h fentanyl CRI
- Updated the Notes column to reflect current practice.
- Procedure section 6 (‘Reversal Agents’), formerly labeled as section 11:
- Re-organized information in this section into Table 8: Reversal Agents for ease of use and clarity.
- Updated Table 9 (Inhalation Anesthetic Dosage Information)
- Updated the Notes column to reflect current practice.
- Procedure section 7 (‘Neuromuscular Blocking Agents (NMBA)’), formerly labeled as section 5:
- Basically same content except to remove the sentence that says “These drugs require additional IACUC approval.”
- Procedure section 8 (‘Local Anesthetics’)
- Added information regarding administering local anesthetic blocks cold to enhance vasoconstriction and adding dexmedetomidine 1-2 mcg/mL of local anesthesia solution can extend local anesthesia.
- Procedure section 9 (‘Analgesics’):
- Removed information on very low doses of propofol or dexmedetomidine, Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs and Opioids in the beginning of the section.
- Added Table 12: Pre-operative anti-nausea and anti-emetic medications
- Updated Table 13: NSAID Dosage Information
- Removed the row for Ketoprofen and Meloxicam SR (Sustained Release)
- Updated Table 14: Opioid Dosage Information
- Added a row for Buprenorphine, long-acting (Simbadol)
- Updated the information (dosage and route and Duration of Effect) for Butorphanol from 0.1-0.2 mg/kg IM, IV and 3-4 h to 0.05mg/kg IM and 8 h
- Updated the Notes column to reflect current practice.
- Procedure section 10 (‘Emergency Resuscitation‘): same content
- References: Updated the section with more recent Literature.
Who is Impacted
Research Personnel
Impact
It is recommended that Research Personnel review the updated document.
This document has been designed by ULAM veterinary personnel as a guideline for sedation, anesthesia, and analgesia of laboratory non-human primates. This is not intended to be an all-inclusive tutorial on drug combinations that can be used in non-human primates. The following guidelines are also general recommendations and consequently do not include reference to specific research-associated concerns.
Responsibility
- Principal Investigator: Responsible to ensure appropriate anesthesia and/or analgesia is provided for all non-human primates undergoing potentially painful procedures, including survival surgery, unless otherwise indicated in the relevant approved protocol.
Glossary Definitions
Anesthesia
This encompasses both of the following definitions:
- Local Anesthesia: Temporarily induces loss of sensation to a specific part of the body. May provide pain relief.
- Systemic Anesthesia: Temporarily induces loss of sensation with loss of consciousness. Only provides pain relief due to or during loss of consciousness.
Analgesia
Provides pain relief without loss of consciousness.
IM
Intramuscular.
IV
Intravenous.
SC
Subcutaneous.
Sedation
Central depression causing stupor where the animal is unaware of its surroundings but still responsive to painful procedures.
Procedures
1. Specific Concerns in NHP Anesthesia
- Pre-Anesthetic Evaluation
- Research related considerations:
- Animals on food or water restriction should preferably have the restriction discontinued for 1-2 days prior to anesthesia.
- Cranial surgery often results in prolonged anesthetic time and additional considerations are needed.
- Drug selection should include drugs that decrease intracranial pressure.
- Staging placement of hardware and devices, along with pre-surgical imaging, can reduce overall procedural and anesthetic time.
- Research related considerations:
- Handling & Restraint
- Due to occupational health concerns, minimally invasive procedures which could be performed in conscious or minimally sedated animals are not safe in many non-human primates. Sedation or anesthesia is recommended.
- For some procedures such as blood collection, positive reinforcement training (PRT) to facilitate cooperation and acclimation to procedural techniques may provide an alternative to sedation
- Pre-anesthetic Fasting
- Withhold food for at least 8 hours but no longer than 24 hours prior to sedation or anesthesia to reduce the risk of regurgitation and aspiration.
- Fasting for periods greater than 24 hours related to specialized procedures (i.e., gastrointestinal procedures) should be described in the protocol.
- Juveniles or small non-human primate species should only be fasted 4-6 hours to help avoid hypoglycemia.
- Do not withhold water prior to anesthesia or sedation.
- For neonatal or unhealthy animals, special care is required. Consult a ULAM Faculty Veterinarian prior to fasting these animals.
- Withhold food for at least 8 hours but no longer than 24 hours prior to sedation or anesthesia to reduce the risk of regurgitation and aspiration.
- Apply sterile non-medicated ophthalmic ointment to the eyes to prevent corneal drying during anesthesia or sedation.
- Intubation:
- Table 1: Recommended Endotracheal Tube Sizes Based on Weight
Body Weight (kg) | Endotracheal Tube Size (mm) |
0.35-0.65 | 5-6 Fr feeding tube |
0.65-1.2 | 2.5, noncuffed |
1.2-20.0 | 3.0-5.0 |
ii. Intubation in NHPs can be challenging due to their head position relative to their upright posture and their short trachea. Difficulty with airway visualization and unilateral intubation are both concerns.
iii. Always auscultate for bilateral breath sounds after intubation using positive pressure ventilation to ensure correct tube placement.
iv. Contact the ULAM Training Core ([email protected] or 734-763-8039) if you need training in nonhuman primate intubation.
b. Vascular access
i. The cephalic vein of the forelimb or the saphenous vein of the hind limb are common sites for IV catheter placement. For more invasive catheterization with multilumen central lines, the femoral vein can be used.
ii. Intravenous fluids are recommended for full anesthetic procedures of 30 minutes or more. More information on intravenous fluid choices and rates can be found in Guidelines on the Performance of Surgery in Non-Rodent Mammals.
2. Normal Monitoring Parameters
- More information on anesthetic/sedation monitoring requirements can found in Anesthesia and Sedation Monitoring Guidelines.
- The goal of monitoring should be to maintain normal cardiac function, respiratory function, and body temperature. Understanding the basic physiologic effects of the anesthetics used is paramount to correctly interpreting monitoring parameters. More information on anesthetic and sedative effects on physiologic parameters can be found in Anesthesia and Analgesia Drug Descriptions.
- Blood Pressure:
- Under anesthesia, systolic blood pressure should remain above 90 mmHg. Mean blood pressure should remain above 60 mmHg.
Table 2: Vasopressors
Drug | Dosage | Notes |
Phenylephrine | 0.1-1.5 mcg/kg/min |
|
Dobutamine | 2.5-10 mcg/kg/min IV |
-
-
- d.
- Table 3: Physiologic Data of Macaques
-
Rectal Temp (°F) | Respiratory Rate (breaths per minute) | Heart Rate (beats per minute) | |
Unanesthetized | 97-102 | 10-44 | 100-220 |
Anesthetized | 97-102 | 8-35 | 80-176 |
- Normal physiologic values (temperature, respiratory rate, heart rate) will vary between species.
- Under anesthesia, normal respiratory rate and heart rate can be 10-20% lower than an unanesthetized animal.
- Hypothermia under sedation or anesthesia can compromise organ function and exacerbate the effects of inhalant agents. In small species primate speciess, it can be life threatening. Normal physiologic temperature should be maintained while under anesthesia. An external heat source should be provided during the entire anesthetic and recovery period to prevent hypothermia.
- For examples of approved external heat supplementation products, refer to Anesthesia and Sedation Monitoring Guidelines
3. Recovery
- More information on required monitoring parameters during post-operative recovery can be found in Guidelines on the Performance of Surgery in Non-Rodent Mammals and Anesthesia and Sedation Monitoring Guidelines.
- Recover animals in their cage under supervision. Animals should be directly monitored until able to maintain a parent airway (swallow and cough) and sit up. Lay animals lateral to prevent potential aspiration during recovery.
- Food and water should be withheld until the animal is fully recovered and ambulating normally.
- Pair-housed animals should be reintroduced to their social group as soon as possible to avoid fighting upon reintroduction. Animals should be able to eat, drink, ambulate well, and respond to stimulation before reintroduction. This time is usually 6-24 hours after the animal sits up postoperatively.
4. Sedatives
- Detailed information on all approved anesthetics and sedatives can be found in Anesthesia and Analgesia Drug Descriptions.
- Extrapolation of doses between species should be avoided. For non-macaque species, please consult with a ULAM veterinarian.
- Inhalants can be used with all of these combinations to extend duration or enhance depth of sedation/anesthesia.
- Table 4: Single Agent Sedation Dosage Information
Drug Dosage and Routea Duration Notesa Dexmedetomidine 1-32 mcg/kg SC, IM
0.5-1 mcg/kg bolus for emergence delirium20-30 min - Can cause bradycardia while appropriate cardiac output and blood pressure are maintained.
- Reversible with atipamezole.
Ketamine 5-15 mg/kg IM (4-10 times IM dose if given PO) Smaller species 15-25 mg/kg
Larger species 5-15 mg/kg
30 min - Moderate sedation, immobilization, some analgesia. No muscle relaxation.
- Bite reflex is lost but swallowing and laryngeal reflexes retained.
- Caution if risk of cerebral edema.
aIntramuscular (IM), Intravenous (IV), Subcutaneous (SC)
- Table 5: Sedation Dosage Information (Combination Agents)
Drug Multiple Species Dosea Duration Notes Ketamine/Dexmedetomidine 5-10 mg/kg ketamine IM
10-30 mcg/kg dexmedetomidine IM30-40 min anesthesia
60-120 min sedation- Sedation to light surgical anesthesia
Ketamine/Diazepam b 3-5 mg/kg ketamine IM
0.5-1 mg/kg diazepam IM30-40 min anesthesia
60-90 min sedation- Light surgical anesthesia
- Diazepam reversible with flumazenil
Ketamine/Midazolam b 5-15 mg/kg ketamine IM
0.05-0.3 mg/kg midazolam IMbImmobilization, light to moderate sedation - Midazolam reversible with flumazenil.
Midazolam/Dexmedetomidine 0.3 mg/kg midazolam IM
30 mcg/kg dexmedetomidine IM75 +/- 40 min - Deep sedation to light anesthesia
Butorphanol/Medetomidine 0.3 mg/kg butorphanol IM
0.03 mg/kg medetomidine IM- Adequate for intubation.
Tiletamine/Zolazepam (Telazol®) 1-3 mg/kg IM
4-6 mg/kg IM15 min in smaller primates.
Up to 60 min in macaques and baboons.- Immobilization to deep sedation.
- Minimal cardiovascular depression, lower drug volumes.
- May cause marked hypothermia
- Caution if risk of cerebral edema.
Alphaxalone/Dexmedetomidine 5 mg/kg alphaxalone IM
10 mcg/kg dexmedetomidine IM50-60 min in macaques - Supplemental oxygen recommended
Alphaxalone/Diazepam 5 mg/kg alphaxalone IM
0.5 mg/kg diazepam IM50-60 min in macaques - Supplemental oxygen recommended
aIntramuscular (IM), Intravenous (IV), Subcutaneous (SC)
bDoes not allow intubation
5. Anesthetics
- Anticholinergics
- Can be utilized to treat or prevent bradycardia and hyper salivation.
- Table 6: Anticholinergics Dosage Information
Drug Dosage and Routea Notesa Atropine 0.025-0.05 mg/kg IM, SC, IV - Half-life is 2 hours. Repeat doses at ½ calculated dose.
- Due to more rapid onset of action, recommended for emergent situations.
Glycopyrrolate 0.005-0.010 mg/kg IM, SC, IV - Half-life is 4 hours. Repeat doses at ½ calculated dose.
aIntramuscular (IM), Intravenous (IV), Subcutaneous (SC)
- Table 7: Injectable Anesthetics for Use with Intubation
- For long duration procedures (x > 3 hours), total or partial intravenous anesthesia can greatly reduce the dose of inhalants to offset their severe hypotensive effects.
- Table 7
Drug Dosage and Routea Notesa Propofol 2-8 mg/kg IV to effect
CRI 18-24 mg/kg/h- 10-20 minute duration; use a lower dose with premedication.
- Due to apnea, use with intubation and inject slowly for induction.
Propofol/Fentanyl 2-10mg/kg/h Propofol CRI
5-10mcg/kg IV bolus followed by 2-5mcg/kg/h fentanyl CRI- Inhalant-sparing effects if used as partial or total intravenous anesthesia.
Fentanyl 5-20 mcg/kg/h IV fentanyl CRI - Short duration of action necessitates CRI administration for efficacy.
- Fentanyl can be reversed with naloxone.
Alphaxalone 1.0-3.0 mg/kg IV bolus
0.01-0.13 mg/kg/min CRI- Used for induction and maintenance of general anesthesia.
- Premed with diazepam (0.5-1.25 mg/kg), ketamine (2 mg/kg), or midazolam (0.05-0.1 mg/kg) IM.
- May cause apnea.
aIntramuscular (IM), Intravenous (IV), Subcutaneous (SC)
- Inhalation Anesthetics
- Table 6: Inhalation Anesthetic Dosage Information
Drug Dosage and Route Notes Isoflurane 3-5% Induction
0.5-3% Maintenance- Recovery is fast and reversal of circulatory and respiratory depression is rapid when the inhaled concentration is reduced.
- Mask or chamber induction may cause airway irritation and distress.
- Ataxia can be seen in recovery.
Sevoflurane 4-8% Induction
1.25-4% Maintenance- Excellent for mask induction because of the non-pungent smell.
- Not irritating to the respiratory tract.
- Because of the rapid recovery, use caution (and appropriate sedation) during the recovery phase.
- Table 6: Inhalation Anesthetic Dosage Information
6. Reversal Agents
Reversal agents can be useful to reduce prolonged recovery times or in the event of anesthetic complications. Analgesic effects are also reversed with the use of reversal agents, and pain management should be modified accordingly.
- Table 8: Reversal Agents
Drug | Dosage & Route | Notes |
Atipamezole (Antisedan ®) | 0.15-0.255mg/kg IV or IM
Volume equivalent to dexmedetomidine |
|
Naloxone | 0.01-0.1 mg/kg IV or IM |
|
Flumazenil | 0.02 mg/kg IV |
|
b. Inhalation Anesthetics
i. Table 9: Inhalation Anesthetic Dosage Information
Drug | Dosage and Route | Notes |
Isoflurane | 3-5% Induction 0.5-3% Maintenance |
|
Sevoflurane | 4-8% Induction 1.25-4% Maintenance |
|
7. Neuromuscular Blocking Agents (NMBA)
- Extreme care must be taken to ensure that a proper level of anesthesia and analgesia is achieved prior to administering a neuromuscular blocking agent.
- Neuromuscular blocking agents require special monitoring procedures which are detailed in Anesthesia and Sedation Monitoring Guidelines.
- Concurrent positive pressure ventilation is required. Reversal of NMBAs with neostigmine and glycopyrrolate is possible under specific conditions. Consult the ULAM veterinarians for instructions on NMBA reversal.
- Table 10: Neuromuscular Blocking Agent Dosage Information
Drug Dosage and Routea Notesa Atracurium 0.25-0.3 mf/kg IV
1.5 mcg/kg/min- Continuous intravenous infusion can be used to maintain and repeated doses are not cumulative.
Vecuronium 0.04-0.06 mg/kg IV - Does not induce tachycardia or histamine release.
Pancuronium 0.08-0.1 mg/kg IV - Lasts longer than vecuronium and produces mild increases in blood pressure and heart rate.
aIntravenous (IV)
8. Local Anesthetics
- Administer local anesthetic blocks cold to enhance vasoconstriction, extending the peripheral nerve block time and local effect.
- The addition of dexmedetomidine 1-2 mcg/mL of local anesthesia solution can extend local anesthesia.
- Table 11: Local Anesthetic Dosage Information
Drug Dosage and Routea Onset and Duration Notesa Lidocaine 1-2% 1-4 mg/kg tissue infiltration (toxic dose > 10 mg/kg other species) Onset: 1-2 min
Duration: 1.5-2 h- Can be diluted 1 in 2 to increase accuracy of dosing in smaller primates.
Bupivacaine 0.25-0.5% 1-2 mg/kg tissue infiltration (toxic dose > 4 mg/kg other species) Onset: 5-10 min
Duration: 4-12 h- Cardio-toxic: aspirate prior to injection, do not give IV.
- Can be diluted 1 in 2 to increase accuracy of dosing in smaller primates.
aSubcutaneous (SC)
9. Analgesics
- Assessment of pain in primates can be challenging to recognize due to their stoic temperament and occupational health and safety concerns preventing close assessment of surgical sites.
- Signs of Pain in Non-human Primates
May include, but not limited to, the following:- Persistent vocalizations
- Restlessness
- Lethargy
- Inappetence
- Ungroomed hair and coat
- Crouched posture
- Glassy eyes
- Social isolation
- Abnormal aggression
- Increased respiratory rate or effort
- Increased resting heart rate
- Reluctance to move
- Prevention and Management of Pain
Prevention of pain by administering analgesics prior to anesthetic recovery is more effective than treatment after signs have developed. Several analgesics are available.- Primates experience nausea and vomiting secondary to anesthesia. Administration of pre-operative anti-nausea and/or anti-emetic medications eliminate or decrease post-operative nausea and vomiting.
- Table 12: Pre-operative anti-nausea and anti-emetic medications
Drug | Dosage and Route | Notes |
Ondansetron | 0.1-0.3 mg/kg IM/IV |
|
Maropitant (Cerenia) | 1 mg/kg SQ |
|
-
- d. Preemptive Analgesia
i. Particularly opioids like buprenorphine, can reduce the dose of anesthetics required for surgical anesthesia. In small primate species, there may be increased respiratory depression associated with anesthetics.
ii. When preemptive analgesia is used, consider reducing the dose of anesthetic (whether inhalant or injectable) to the low end of the recommended range.
iii. Anesthetic depth must be carefully monitored, and drug doses may need to be titrated to maintain appropriate levels.
iv. Please see the Policy On Analgesia in Animals Undergoing Surgery for guidance on analgesics used in various surgical procedures.
e. Table 13: NSAID Dosage Information
-
Drug Dosage and Routea Duration of Effect Notes Carprofen (Rimadyl®) 2-4 mg/kg PO, SC, IM 24 h - Mild to moderate analgesia.
- Dosing frequency can be increased for 2-3 dosages if required.
- May can an increased risk of stomach ulcers.
Meloxicam Loading dose 0.2 mg/kg SC once followed by 0.1 mg/kg once a day for 2-3 days 24 h - Moderate analgesia.
- Only COX-2 selective for primates.
- May be given for up to 4-5 days if needed.
- Dosing frequency can be increased for 2-3 dosages if required.
- Low oral bioavailability so higher doses are needed if PO route considered.
aIntramuscular (IM), Intravenous (IV), Subcutaneous (SC)
f. Table 14: Opioid Dosage Information
Drug Dosage and Routea Duration of Effect Notes Buprenorphine (Buprenex) 0.005-0.03 mg/kg SC, IM, IV 6-12 h - Mild to moderate analgesia.
- Absorbed slowly (30 minutes to effect).
- Higher doses may lead to sedation and/or respiratory depression.
- Almost no sedation at lower doses.
- Cannot be effectively reversed.
- Useful to reverse mu agonist opioids while retaining analgesia.
Buprenorphine, long-acting (Simbadol) 0.24 mg/kg SC every 2 days 0.72 mg/kg SC every 3 days for Old Worlds
48-72 h - Mild lethargy and pruritis can be seen with both doses
Fentanyl 5-10 mcg/kg IV bolus followed by 2-5 mcg/kg/h CRI - Taper at end of surgery.
- Causes dose-dependent respiratory depression.
Butorphanol 0.05mg/kg IM 8 h - Mild to moderate analgesia, no sedation or muscle relaxation.
- Can work synergistically with other injectables to prolong recovery.
aIntramuscular (IM), Intravenous (IV), Subcutaneous (SC)
10. Emergency Resuscitation
- In the event of an anesthetic crisis, turn anesthetic gases off and contact a ULAM veterinarian at 734-936-1037 immediately. Have emergency drugs and instruments in the surgery suite ready for use.
- Reverse anesthetic agents, if appropriate.
- Use the following guidelines to support the animal until the veterinarian arrives:
- A – Ensure a patent Airway: Place a cuffed endotracheal tube or confirm patency of tube already in place. If an endotracheal tube is not available, use a face mask to ventilate.
- B – Assist in Breathing if necessary: Turn anesthetic gases off and ventilate with pure oxygen. A rapid ventilation rate (> 20 breaths per minute) is recommended to remove carbon dioxide, prevent acidosis, and decrease cerebral pressure.
- C – Provide Cardiovascular Support as indicated: This can include rapid chest compressions (30-40% of lateral dimension; 80-120/minute) with the animal in lateral recumbency, and rapid infusion of intravenous crystalloid fluids (50-60 ml/kg bolus) to support perfusion.
- If no heartbeat can be heard or no pulses felt, then epinephrine should be given IV (see chart below). Reversal drugs should be given if opioids or xylazine have been used.
References
- APV Primate Formulary https://www.primatevets.org/media/b1b99597-05be-4290-b653-bcdffc80883a/XJzcow/APV/Education%20Resources/Formulary%20and%20Handbooks/Nonhuman%20Primate%20Formulary.xls
- Association of Primate Veterinarians Cranial Implant Care for Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Research. (2021). Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science : JAALAS, 60(5), 496–501. https://doi.org/10.30802/AALAS-JAALAS-21-000108
- Bauer C, Frost P, Kirschner S. Pharmacokinetics of 3 formulations of meloxicam in cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis). J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 2014;53(5):502-511
- Coleman, K., Pranger, L., Maier, A., Lambeth, S. P., Perlman, J. E., Thiele, E., & Schapiro, S. J. (2008). Training rhesus macaques for venipuncture using positive reinforcement techniques: a comparison with chimpanzees. Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science : JAALAS, 47(1), 37–41
- Flecknell PA and Waterman-Pearson A. Pain Management in Animals. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA. 2002.
- Fox JG, Anderson LC, Loew FM, Quimby FW eds. Laboratory Animal Medicine 2nd Ed. Academic Press, London England, 2002.
- Gaynor J, Muir W, Handbook of Veterinary Pain Management, Mosby, St. Louis Missouri, 2002.
- Graham, M. L., Rieke, E. F., Mutch, L. A., Zolondek, E. K., Faig, A. W., Dufour, T. A., Munson, J. W., Kittredge, J. A., & Schuurman, H. J. (2012). Successful implementation of cooperative handling eliminates the need for restraint in a complex non-human primate disease model. Journal of medical primatology, 41(2), 89–106. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0684.2011.00525.x
- Hawk, C. et al. (2005) Formulary for Laboratory Animals, Third Edition, Blackwell Publishing, Ames, Iowa.
- Mackiewicz, A. L., Salyards, G. W., Knych, H. K., Hill, A. E., & Christe, K. L. (2019). Pharmacokinetics of a Long-lasting, Highly Concentrated Buprenorphine Solution after Subcutaneous Administration in Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta). Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science : JAALAS, 58(4), 501–509. https://doi.org/10.30802/AALAS-JAALAS-18-000115.
- Martin C, Roman V, Agay D, Fatôme M. Anti-emetic effect of ondansetron and granisetron after exposure to mixed neutron and gamma irradiation. Radiat Res. 1998 Jun;149(6):631-6. PMID: 9611102.
- Ølberg, R.-A. and Sinclair, M. (2025). Monkeys and Gibbons. In Zoo Animal and Wildlife Immobilization and Anesthesia (eds G. West, D. Heard and N. Caulkett). https://doi-org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/10.1002/9781119539278.ch32
- Paterson, E. A., & Turner, P. V. (2022). Challenges with Assessing and Treating Pain in Research Primates: A Focused Survey and Literature Review. Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, 12(17), 2304. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12172304
- Plumb, DC. (2002). Veterinary Drug Handbook Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
- Steinbach JR, MacGuire J, Chang S, Dierks E, Roble GS. Assessment of pre-operative maropitant citrate use in macaque (Macaca fasicularis & Macaca mulatta) neurosurgical procedures. J Med Primatol. 2018 Jun;47(3):178-184. doi: 10.1111/jmp.12343. Epub 2018 Apr 2. PMID: 29611200.
Questions?
If you have questions or comments about this document, contact ULAM Veterinary Staff ([email protected] or 734-936-1696).
The ULAM Training Core ([email protected] or 734-763-8039) can be contacted to provide training in techniques at no charge.
For any concerns regarding animal health after work hours or on holidays/weekends, contact DPSS (3-1131) who will contact the on-call veterinarian.