{"id":2909,"date":"2025-02-17T15:38:52","date_gmt":"2025-02-17T15:38:52","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/az.research.umich.edu\/animalcare\/document\/guidelines-anesthesia-and-analgesia-ruminants\/"},"modified":"2026-04-21T08:23:59","modified_gmt":"2026-04-21T12:23:59","slug":"guidelines-anesthesia-and-analgesia-ruminants","status":"publish","type":"document","link":"https:\/\/az.research.umich.edu\/animalcare\/guidelines\/guidelines-anesthesia-and-analgesia-ruminants\/","title":{"rendered":"Guidelines on Anesthesia and Analgesia in Ruminants"},"template":"","categories":[7,18],"tags":[],"content-type":[39],"topic":[34],"update-type":[],"class_list":["post-2909","document","type-document","status-publish","hentry","category-cows","category-sheep","content-type-guidelines","topic-anesthesia-and-analgesia"],"acf":{"use_legacy_editor":true,"updated_date":"2026-03-06 00:00:00","update_notice":true,"author":"Unit for Laboratory Animal Medicine","summary":"This set of guidelines was prepared by the ULAM veterinary staff to provide general recommendations for anesthesia<\/a> and analgesia<\/a> in laboratory ruminants. This is not intended to be an all-inclusive tutorial, and does not factor in specific research-related concerns.","button_links":null,"related_content":[2985,2973,2917,2890,2940],"legacy_path":"guidelines-anesthesia-and-analgesia-ruminants","legacy_node_id":54,"legacy_related_nids":"137, 123, 62, 35, 87, 1048, 1046","legacy_content_section":[{"legacy_section_type":"heading","legacy_heading":"Responsibility","legacy_subheading":"","legacy_section_text":"","legacy_media_position":"","legacy_media_file":"","legacy_media_url":"","legacy_glossary_term":"","legacy_glossary_nids":"","legacy_resource":"","legacy_resource_nids":"","legacy_buttons":null},{"legacy_section_type":"text_area","legacy_heading":"","legacy_subheading":"","legacy_section_text":"
    \r\n \t
  1. Principal Investigator<\/strong>: Responsible to ensure appropriate anesthesia and\/or analgesia is provided for all ruminants undergoing painful procedures including ruminant survival surgery unless otherwise indicated in the relevant approved protocol.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>","legacy_media_position":"","legacy_media_file":"","legacy_media_url":"","legacy_glossary_term":"","legacy_glossary_nids":"","legacy_resource":"","legacy_resource_nids":"","legacy_buttons":null},{"legacy_section_type":"heading","legacy_heading":"Glossary Definitions","legacy_subheading":"","legacy_section_text":"","legacy_media_position":"","legacy_media_file":"","legacy_media_url":"","legacy_glossary_term":"","legacy_glossary_nids":"","legacy_resource":"","legacy_resource_nids":"","legacy_buttons":null},{"legacy_section_type":"glossary_terms","legacy_heading":"","legacy_subheading":"","legacy_section_text":"","legacy_media_position":"","legacy_media_file":"","legacy_media_url":"","legacy_glossary_term":[2405,2404,2393,2690,2618],"legacy_glossary_nids":"1072, 1071, 1060, 1371, 1294","legacy_resource":"","legacy_resource_nids":"","legacy_buttons":null},{"legacy_section_type":"heading","legacy_heading":"Procedures","legacy_subheading":"","legacy_section_text":"","legacy_media_position":"","legacy_media_file":"","legacy_media_url":"","legacy_glossary_term":"","legacy_glossary_nids":"","legacy_resource":"","legacy_resource_nids":"","legacy_buttons":null},{"legacy_section_type":"text_area_with_subheading","legacy_heading":"","legacy_subheading":"1. Specific Concerns in Ruminant Anesthesia","legacy_section_text":"
      \r\n \t
    1. Acclimation Period<\/a>:<\/strong> Newly arrived ruminants will receive an intake examination by a veterinarian. Newly arrived animals should be acclimated at least 3 days prior to anesthesia or sedation<\/a> though one week is highly recommended. This allows them to adjust to a different environment and ensure proper nutritional and hydration status. Acclimation period may be adjusted based on protocol requirements, scientific justification, or clinical veterinary assessment.<\/li>\r\n \t
    2. Fasting: <\/strong>Withhold food for at least 12 hours but no longer than 24 hours prior to sedation or anesthesia to reduce rumen distension and bloat (no water restriction). Longer fasting times may be needed for some procedures but should be described and justified in the approved animal use protocol. The fasting of young animals less than 4 months old is not recommended because of the potential for hypoglycemia and prolonged recovery.<\/li>\r\n \t
    3. Vascular Access: <\/strong>When venous access is necessary, the jugular vein is the most common location for catheterization or IV injections. Other locations include the cephalic, ear, and saphenous veins. The maintenance fluid rate for small ruminants is 1 mL\/lb\/hr. Commonly used replacement and maintenance fluids in small ruminants include Lactated Ringer\u2019s Solution (LRS) and normal saline (0.9% NaCl).<\/li>\r\n \t
    4. Table 1: Recommended Catheter Sizes Based on Location\r\n<\/strong><\/strong>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
      Vein<\/strong><\/th>\r\nCatheter Size (length)<\/strong><\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n
      Jugular<\/td>\r\n16 or 18 g (3.25 - 3.5\")<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
      Cephalic<\/td>\r\n18 - 20 g (1 - 2\")<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
      Auricular<\/td>\r\n20 - 22 g (0.75 - 1.0\")<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
      Saphenous<\/td>\r\n18 - 22 g (1 - 2\")<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t
    5. Intubation:<\/strong> Tracheal intubation with appropriate inflation of the cuff immediately following anesthetic induction is necessary to protect the airway from saliva and rumen contents.\r\n
        \r\n \t
      1. Table 2: Recommended Endotracheal\u00a0Tube Sizes Based on Weight\r\n<\/strong><\/strong>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
        Body Weight (kg)<\/strong><\/th>\r\nEndotracheal Tube Size (mm)<\/strong><\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n
        <30<\/td>\r\n4 - 7<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u00a0100 - 150<\/td>\r\n12 - 14<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        60 - 80<\/td>\r\n10 - 12<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        30 - 40<\/td>\r\n8 - 11<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t
      2. \u200bRumen Tube Placement:<\/strong>\r\n
          \r\n \t
        1. Regurgitation:<\/strong> Regurgitation during anesthesia is a common problem in ruminants. Lowering the head of the animal and periodic suctioning of the mouth may facilitate fluid drainage. Passing a stomach tube into the rumen can also help to decrease the risk of aspiration. The risk of regurgitation decreases significantly when feed is withheld for 12\u201324 hours prior to anesthesia in small ruminants.<\/li>\r\n \t
        2. Bloat:<\/strong> In the event that an animal becomes bloated, gas can be evacuated from the rumen by passing a stomach tube. If you are suspicious of bloat, please contact the ULAM veterinary staff for assistance.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t
        3. Positioning:<\/strong>\r\n
            \r\n \t
          1. Proper padding and optimal positioning of ruminants during surgery is important to prevent limb nerve damage. Ruminants should be placed on a flat surface with sufficient padding (min. 1-2\u201d thickness recommended for calves, sheep and goats).<\/li>\r\n \t
          2. \u00a0Due to salivation and regurgitation, the head should be lowered. Placing a sandbag or rolled-up towel under the neck of a small ruminant to elevate the throat latch allows saliva to escape, avoiding the potential for aspiration. This technique also helps to minimize the flow of passive regurgitation during deep anesthesia.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t
          3. Special Considerations: <\/strong>Additional PPE<\/a> is required due to the risk of exposure when working with sheep with Orf<\/a> lesions or increased risk of Q fever<\/a> transmission. Refer to Animal Handler Occupational Health & Safety Program<\/a><\/em> and\u00a0Procedures to Reduce Human Exposure to Orf and Q Fever<\/a><\/em> for further information.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>","legacy_media_position":"","legacy_media_file":"","legacy_media_url":"","legacy_glossary_term":"","legacy_glossary_nids":"","legacy_resource":"","legacy_resource_nids":"","legacy_buttons":null},{"legacy_section_type":"text_area_with_subheading","legacy_heading":"","legacy_subheading":"2. Monitoring & Recovery","legacy_section_text":"
              \r\n \t
            1. Standard mammalian monitoring techniques are applicable to ruminants \u2013 the goal of monitoring should be to maintain cardiovascular hemodynamics and core body temperature. Understanding the basic physiologic effects of the anesthetics used is paramount to correct interpretation of monitoring parameters. For uncomplicated, brief surgeries, monitoring vital signs (e.g., BP, HR, RR, pO2), and ECG may be adequate. For more involved procedures, invasive pressure monitoring and blood gas analysis may be indicated.<\/li>\r\n \t
            2. Table 3: Monitoring Parameters\r\n<\/strong><\/strong>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
              Parameter<\/strong><\/th>\r\nExpected Values - Anesthetized<\/strong><\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n
              Heart Rate (beats per minute)<\/td>\r\n80 - 150 (sheep, goats, calves)\r\n70 - 100 (adult cattle)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
              Direct Blood\u00a0Pressure<\/td>\r\n75 - 100 mm Hg (mean)\r\n60 - 80 mm Hg (diastolic)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
              Respiratory Rate (beats per minute)<\/td>\r\n20 - 40 (sheep, goats, calves)\r\n20 - 40 (adult cattle)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
              End-tidal CO2<\/sub><\/td>\r\n35 - 40 mm Hg<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
              Temperature (o<\/sup>F)<\/td>\r\n>98 (all species)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t
            3. Jaw tone<\/strong> most reliably reflects depth of anesthesia and should be assessed throughout the procedure.\u00a0The eye <\/strong>rotates ventrally (downward towards the jaw) as anesthesia deepens and only the sclera is seen; it then rotates medially (towards the centerline or nose) during deep anesthesia. Palpebral reflex is lost at light planes of anesthesia in ruminants and is, therefore, of little value as a measure of anesthetic depth in these species.<\/li>\r\n \t
            4. Adequate ventilation<\/strong> is crucial in ruminants. Organs can push against the diaphragm, or respiratory secretions can obstruct endotracheal tube function, therefore not allowing for normal tidal volumes with decreased respiratory efforts due to the anesthesia. Ventilation should be assisted or controlled by squeezing the rebreathing bag with a positive pressure of 20 to 25 cm H2O if an inhalation anesthetic is used. A mechanical ventilator is highly recommended to alleviate this effect and prevent atelectasis. Keeping the ventilator pressure at 20 mm Hg and sometimes even a little higher periodically, not to exceed 40 mm Hg, will help open all of the alveoli. Endotracheal tube obstruction can be relieved with gentle suction. Tidal volume should be set to 10 mL\/kg.<\/li>\r\n \t
            5. During recovery from anesthesia, after rumen tube and endotracheal tube are removed, recover ruminant in a sternal position.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>","legacy_media_position":"","legacy_media_file":"","legacy_media_url":"","legacy_glossary_term":"","legacy_glossary_nids":"","legacy_resource":"","legacy_resource_nids":"","legacy_buttons":null},{"legacy_section_type":"text_area_with_subheading","legacy_heading":"","legacy_subheading":"3. Agents Used for Sedation or Restraint","legacy_section_text":"
                \r\n \t
              1. Table 4: Sedatives Used in Small Ruminants\r\n<\/strong><\/strong>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
                Agent<\/strong><\/th>\r\nSheep Dose (mg\/kg)<\/strong><\/th>\r\nComments<\/strong><\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n
                Phenothiazines<\/strong><\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                Acepromazine<\/td>\r\n0.01 - 0.05 IV\r\n0.05 - 0.2 IM<\/td>\r\nSlow onset of mild sedation, usually without recumbency, vasodilation and hypotension<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                \u03b1-2 Agonists<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\nDrugs of this class may cause pulmonary edema and hypoxemia in sheep, especially when given at high dose or IV.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                Xylazine<\/td>\r\n0.01 - 0.1 IV\r\n\r\n0.05 - 0.3 IM<\/td>\r\nMild to heavy sedation \u2013 dose dependent Potential for hypoxemia and pulmonary edem<\/strong>a: monitor lung sounds and oxygenation. Use with extreme caution in animals with cardiovascular disease or in late pregnancy. Reverse with atipamezole (0.1 \u2013 0.2 mg\/kg IV or IM).<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                Xylazine +\r\nButorphanol<\/td>\r\n0.01 - 0.1 IV\r\n\r\n0.01 \u2013 0.02 IV<\/td>\r\nEnhanced sedation and analgesia. Twitching of the facial muscles, lips, and head may occur.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                Xylazine +\r\nButorphanol<\/td>\r\n0.02 IM\r\n\r\n0.05 IM<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                Dexmedetomidine<\/td>\r\n0.005 -0.01 IV\r\n0.01 \u2013 0.02 IM<\/td>\r\nAtipamezole used for reversal (0.1 - 0.2 mg\/kg IV or IM).<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                Benzodiazepines<\/strong><\/em><\/td>\r\nVery low doses of benzodiazepines can cause excitement when given IV.\u00a0 \u00a0<\/strong><\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                Diazepam<\/td>\r\n0.25 - 1.0 IV slowly<\/td>\r\nProvide muscle relaxation, hypnosis, decreased anxiety, and mild sedation. Reverse with flumazenil (0.02 mg\/kg IV or IM).<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                Midazolam<\/td>\r\n0.1 \u2013 1 IM, IV<\/td>\r\nMild sedation. Combine with other agents for sedation. Reverse with flumazenil (0.02 mg\/kg IV or IM).<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t
              2. For calves, a combination of injection and inhalation with xylazine (0.2 mg\/kg), ketamine (2 mg\/kg), and isoflurane (1.5-3.0 vol%) was associated with fewer pain-associated reactions compared to injection or inhalation alone (Hefti 2012). The triple drip described in Table 3<\/strong><\/em> can also be used in calves.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>","legacy_media_position":"","legacy_media_file":"","legacy_media_url":"","legacy_glossary_term":"","legacy_glossary_nids":"","legacy_resource":"","legacy_resource_nids":"","legacy_buttons":null},{"legacy_section_type":"text_area_with_subheading","legacy_heading":"","legacy_subheading":"4. Preferred General Anesthetics","legacy_section_text":"
                  \r\n \t
                1. Inhalation Agents:<\/strong> Inhalation anesthesia<\/a> with a rebreathing system is the method of choice for maintaining anesthesia for long periods of time. Advantages of inhalant anesthesia are rapid control of anesthetic depth and rapid recovery. Use caution when recovering animals from inhalant agents due to the potential for dysphoria and risk of injury to the animal when it\u2019s attempting to stand upright. Circle rebreathing systems common to most human and veterinary anesthetic machines are suitable for use in small ruminants<\/a> (<150 kg).<\/li>\r\n \t
                2. Table 5: Inhalant Anesthetics Used in Ruminants\r\n<\/strong><\/strong>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
                  Agent<\/strong><\/th>\r\nOxygen Flow<\/strong><\/th>\r\nVaporizer Setting (MAC)<\/strong><\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n
                  Isoflurane<\/td>\r\nInduction: 20 ml\/kg\/min\r\nMaintenance: 12 ml\/kg\/min<\/td>\r\nInduction: 3 - 5%\r\nMaintenance: 1.5 - 3%<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                  Sevoflurane<\/td>\r\nInduction: 20 ml\/kg\/min\r\nMaintenance: 12 ml\/kg\/min<\/td>\r\nInduction: 4 - 6%\r\nMaintenance: 2 - 4%<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t
                3. Parenteral Anesthetics:<\/strong> Generally used to induce anesthesia prior to inhalant anesthesia or for short-term procedures. As an alternative to inhalants, a combination of xylazine, ketamine, and guaifenesin has been used to induce and maintain anesthesia as a constant rate infusion. This combination is associated with minimal cardiopulmonary depression. However, intubation with supplemental oxygen and a stomach tube are recommended. Repeated doses of the parenteral agents discussed above have also been used to maintain anesthesia, but intubation and maintenance with an inhalant anesthetic is preferred.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>","legacy_media_position":"","legacy_media_file":"","legacy_media_url":"","legacy_glossary_term":"","legacy_glossary_nids":"","legacy_resource":"","legacy_resource_nids":"","legacy_buttons":null},{"legacy_section_type":"text_area_with_subheading","legacy_heading":"","legacy_subheading":"5. Ruminant Anesthetics and Combinations","legacy_section_text":"
                    \r\n \t
                  1. Table 6: Injectable Anesthetics Used in Ruminants\r\n<\/strong><\/strong>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
                    Drug<\/strong><\/th>\r\nRoute<\/strong><\/th>\r\nSheep Dose (mg\/kg)<\/strong><\/th>\r\nComments<\/strong><\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n
                    Induction<\/strong><\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    Propofol<\/td>\r\n\u00a0IV<\/td>\r\n2 - 6 (induction)\r\n0.3 - 0.5 mg\/kg\/min<\/td>\r\nRapid recovery\r\n\r\nMaintenance infusion\r\n(Discard unused portion)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    Alfaxalone<\/td>\r\nIV<\/td>\r\n2 - 3<\/td>\r\nInduction to effect<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    Dexmedetomidine +\r\nKetamine<\/td>\r\nIM\/IV\r\nIM\/IV<\/td>\r\n0.04 (IM), 0.005 (IV)\r\n3 (IM), 2 (IV)<\/td>\r\nAtipamezole used for reversal\r\n(0.1-0.2 mg\/kg IV or IM).<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    Xylazine\r\nKetamine<\/td>\r\nIV\r\n\r\nIV<\/td>\r\n0.05\r\n\r\n2<\/td>\r\nXylazine for sedation followed by ketamine<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    Diazepam +\r\nKetamine<\/td>\r\nIV\r\n\r\nIV<\/td>\r\n0.5 - 1 mg\/kg\r\n3 mg\/kg IV to effect<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    Telazol<\/td>\r\nIV\r\nIM<\/td>\r\n1.1 - 5.5\r\n2 - 6<\/td>\r\nRapid onset. Anesthesia more profound than ketamine-diazepam.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    Total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA)<\/strong><\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    Triple Drip\r\nGuaifenesin 50mg\/ml, Ketamine 1 mg\/ml, & Xylazine 0.1 mg\/ml<\/td>\r\nIV<\/td>\r\nInduction:\r\n0.5 \u2013 2 ml\/kg Maintenance:\r\n0.5 \u2013 2.5 ml\/kg\/h<\/td>\r\nGiven \"to effect\" for intubation and continue on a slow drip until isoflurane has taken effect. Can use double drip (guaifenesin + ketamine) with isoflurane<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    Telazol<\/td>\r\nIV<\/td>\r\n5 \u2013 15 mg\/kg\/h<\/td>\r\nRequires sedation with Telazol IM followed by CRI \u2013 reserve for imaging or non-surgical procedures if used as solo agent<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    Ketamine +\r\nLidocaine<\/td>\r\nIV<\/td>\r\n0.6 mg\/kg\/h (K) +\r\n1.2 mg\/kg\/h (L)<\/td>\r\nUse in conjunction with inhalants<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t
                  2. For additional combinations, please contact ULAM veterinarians.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>","legacy_media_position":"","legacy_media_file":"","legacy_media_url":"","legacy_glossary_term":"","legacy_glossary_nids":"","legacy_resource":"","legacy_resource_nids":"","legacy_buttons":null},{"legacy_section_type":"text_area_with_subheading","legacy_heading":"","legacy_subheading":"6. Neuromuscular Blocking Agents (NMBA)","legacy_section_text":"
                      \r\n \t
                    1. Extreme care must be taken to ensure that a proper level of anesthesia and analgesia<\/a> is achieved prior to administering a neuromuscular blocking agent.<\/li>\r\n \t
                    2. Neuromuscular blocking agents require special monitoring procedures which are detailed in Anesthesia and Sedation Monitoring Guidelines<\/a><\/em>.\r\n
                        \r\n \t
                      1. Concurrent positive pressure ventilation is required. Reversal of NMBAs with neostigmine and glycopyrrolate is possible under specific conditions. Please consult the ULAM veterinarians for instructions on NMBA reversal.<\/li>\r\n \t
                      2. Table 7: Neuromuscular Blocking Agents\r\n<\/strong><\/strong>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
                        Drug<\/strong><\/th>\r\nSheep Dose (mg\/kg)<\/strong><\/th>\r\nRoute<\/strong><\/th>\r\nDuration of Effect<\/strong><\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n
                        Vecuronium<\/td>\r\n0.004<\/td>\r\nIV<\/td>\r\n14 minutes<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                        Pancuronium<\/td>\r\n0.005<\/td>\r\nIV<\/td>\r\n21 minutes<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>","legacy_media_position":"","legacy_media_file":"","legacy_media_url":"","legacy_glossary_term":"","legacy_glossary_nids":"","legacy_resource":"","legacy_resource_nids":"","legacy_buttons":null},{"legacy_section_type":"text_area_with_subheading","legacy_heading":"","legacy_subheading":"7. Local Anesthetics","legacy_section_text":"
                          \r\n \t
                        1. Appropriate for minimally invasive procedures such as skin biopsy, or as a supplement to sedation<\/a>, anesthesia and analgesia.\r\n
                            \r\n \t
                          1. Local anesthetics<\/a> are excellent analgesics for use in minor procedures or as \"splash blocks\" for post-operative incision pain.<\/li>\r\n \t
                          2. Local anesthetics can be administered via a syringe, wound soaker catheter or epidurals<\/a>. Contact ULAM veterinary staff if interested.<\/li>\r\n \t
                          3. Table 8: Local anesthetics\r\n<\/strong><\/strong>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
                            Drug<\/strong><\/th>\r\nDose (mg\/kg)<\/strong><\/th>\r\nRoute<\/strong><\/th>\r\nDuration of Effect<\/strong><\/th>\r\nNotes<\/strong><\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n
                            Lidocaine<\/td>\r\n<6 (<3 ml\/kg of a 2% solution)<\/td>\r\nInfiltrate<\/td>\r\n0.75 - 2 hours\r\n(1 - 5 minute onset)<\/td>\r\nMay need to dilute to achieve appropriate volume for infiltration.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                            Bupivacaine<\/td>\r\n<2 (<0.8 ml\/kg of a 0.25% solution)<\/td>\r\nInfiltrate<\/td>\r\n4 - 8 hours\r\n(30 minute onset)<\/td>\r\nMay need to dilute to achieve appropriate volume for infiltration.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                            Liposomal bupivacaine (Nocita)<\/td>\r\n< 0.4 ml\/kg<\/td>\r\nInfiltrate<\/td>\r\nUp to 72 hours<\/td>\r\nInfiltrate entire incision<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>","legacy_media_position":"","legacy_media_file":"","legacy_media_url":"","legacy_glossary_term":"","legacy_glossary_nids":"","legacy_resource":"","legacy_resource_nids":"","legacy_buttons":null},{"legacy_section_type":"text_area_with_subheading","legacy_heading":"","legacy_subheading":"8. Analgesics","legacy_section_text":"
                              \r\n \t
                            1. Signs of pain in ruminants may include, but are not limited to, the following:<\/li>\r\n \t
                            2. Table 9: Signs of Pain\r\n<\/strong><\/strong>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
                              Observational Signs<\/strong><\/th>\r\nPhysical Exam Signs<\/strong><\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n
                              Lethargy<\/td>\r\nElevated Body Temperature<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                              Rigid Posture<\/td>\r\nElevated Respiratory Rate<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                              Restless<\/td>\r\nElevated Heart Rate<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                              Shifting Weight<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                              Vocalization<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                              Kicking at Painful Area<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                              Teeth Grinding<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                              Reduction in Feed Intake<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                              Tail Swishing<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t
                            3. Assessment of pain in ruminants can be challenging to recognize due to their stoic temperament and the natural instinct of prey animals not to attract the attention of predators when injured. Behavioral changes associated with pain in ruminants, as well as physiologic parameters such as body temperature or respiratory rate may not always be reliable indicators of pain.<\/li>\r\n \t
                            4. Sheep Grimace Scale: H\u00e4ger C, et al. (2017) The Sheep Grimace Scale as an indicator of post-operative distress and pain in laboratory sheep. PLoS ONE 12(4): e0175839.<\/li>\r\n \t
                            5. Table 10: Analgesics in Ruminants\r\n<\/strong><\/strong>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
                              Analgesic<\/strong><\/th>\r\nRoute<\/strong><\/th>\r\nDose (mg\/kg)<\/strong><\/th>\r\nFrequency<\/strong><\/th>\r\nComments<\/strong><\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n
                              Opioids<\/strong><\/em><\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                              Buprenorphine<\/td>\r\nIV\r\nIM<\/td>\r\n0.006\r\n0.005 - 0.01<\/td>\r\n4 - 6 hours<\/td>\r\nCan be delivered as CRI per guidance by ULAM veterinarian<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                              Buprenorphine Lab SR (10 mg\/ml)<\/td>\r\nSC<\/td>\r\n0.2-0.3 mg\/kg<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\nAdminister 1 day pre-operative. May use in conjunction with regular buprenorphine as a loading dose<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                              Butorphanol<\/td>\r\nIV\r\nIM<\/td>\r\n0.05 - 0.5<\/td>\r\n2 - 4 hours<\/td>\r\nCan be administered in combination with\u00a0 sedatives and induction agents. Unreliable sedation. Ataxia and restlessness when administered alone.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                              Fentanyla<\/strong><\/sup><\/td>\r\nTransdermal<\/td>\r\n2 \u00b5g\/kg\/h<\/td>\r\n40 hours<\/td>\r\nSedation may be noted. The ideal time for preemptive administration is 12 - 24 hours prior to surgery.a<\/strong><\/sup> See directions below for application.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                              NSAIDs<\/strong><\/em><\/a>\r\n<\/strong><\/em><\/td>\r\nPotentially valuable for pre-emptive analgesia<\/a> in ruminants.\r\n<\/strong><\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                              Carprofen<\/td>\r\nSC<\/td>\r\n4<\/td>\r\n24 hours<\/td>\r\nMore selective inhibitor of COX-2.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                              Meloxicam<\/td>\r\nPO<\/td>\r\n2 mg\/kg 1st day then 1 mg\/kg PO<\/td>\r\n24 hours<\/td>\r\nMore selective inhibitor of COX-2.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                              Flunixin meglumine<\/td>\r\nIV<\/td>\r\n1.0 - 2.2<\/td>\r\n24 hours<\/td>\r\nLower doses are recommended in goats rather than in sheep. Non-selective COX inhibitor.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                              Ketoprofen<\/td>\r\nIM or IV<\/td>\r\n1 - 3<\/td>\r\n24 hours<\/td>\r\nUp to 3 days. Non selective COX inhibitor.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                              Phenylbutazone<\/td>\r\nPO<\/td>\r\n5 - 10<\/td>\r\n24 hours<\/td>\r\nNOT recommended for sheep;<\/strong> okay for goats and cattle. Non-selective COX inhibitor.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t
                            6. Clip site with clipper blades carefully to not graze or cut the skin, leaving a wide margin to avoid wool tearing during patch removal. Clean skin with a 70% v\/v chlorhexidine\/ alcohol solution. Allow skin to fully dry before patch application. Firmly hold the patch in place with the palm of your hand for 15 seconds. After application, make an Elasticon segment large enough to cover the entire patch, while leaving extra Elasticon surrounding the patch. Place 2 skin staples per patch edge (8 total), through the Elasticon border of the patch, ensuring that each staple makes skin contact and does not puncture the patch. Wrap the site with a single layer of elastic conforming bandage (Vetrap, 3M) held in place with either a small piece of Elasticon or duct tape. Place a plastic \u2018No Bite\u2019 collar around the neck of the sheep. Wrap the collar completely with duct tape to secure it and to prevent other sheep from unraveling the collar and patch cover.This method ensures good patch\/skin contact with no slippage.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>","legacy_media_position":"","legacy_media_file":"","legacy_media_url":"","legacy_glossary_term":"","legacy_glossary_nids":"","legacy_resource":"","legacy_resource_nids":"","legacy_buttons":null},{"legacy_section_type":"text_area_with_subheading","legacy_heading":"","legacy_subheading":"9. Anesthetic Emergencies","legacy_section_text":"
                                \r\n \t
                              1. In the event of an anesthetic crisis, turn anesthetic gases off and contact a ULAM veterinarian at (734)<\/strong> 936-1037<\/strong>\u00a0or (734) 763-1131<\/strong>\u00a0immediately. Use the following guidelines to support the animal until the veterinarian arrives:\r\n
                                  \r\n \t
                                1. Ensure a patent Airway:<\/strong> Place an endotracheal tube or confirm patency of tube already in place.<\/li>\r\n \t
                                2. Assist in Breathing if necessary:<\/strong> Turn anesthetic gases off and ventilate with 100% oxygen. A rapid ventilatory rate (30 per min) is recommended to remove carbon dioxide, prevent acidosis, and decrease cerebral pressure.<\/li>\r\n \t
                                3. Provide Cardiovascular Support as indicated:<\/strong> Chest compressions in ruminant species are often futile due to animal size. Administer the following agents as indicated by the situation:<\/li>\r\n \t
                                4. Table 11:<\/strong> Emergency Drugs\r\n<\/strong><\/strong>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
                                  Atropine<\/td>\r\n0.1 mg\/kg IV<\/td>\r\nIf severely bradycardic<\/strong> heart rate.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                                  Epinephrine<\/td>\r\n0.01 mg\/kg IV<\/td>\r\nIf\u00a0no<\/strong>\u00a0detectable heart beat.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                                  Crystalloid fluid bolus<\/td>\r\n60 ml\/kg IV<\/td>\r\nFollowing administration of either above agent, or<\/strong> if heart beat is present, lung sounds are clear, blood pressure is not<\/strong><\/em> high, and no other agent is given.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t
                                5. Please contact the ULAM Training Core<\/strong> at ULAM-trainingcore@umich.edu<\/a>\u00a0or\u00a0734-763-8039<\/strong> if further instruction on emergency resuscitation is desired<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>","legacy_media_position":"","legacy_media_file":"","legacy_media_url":"","legacy_glossary_term":"","legacy_glossary_nids":"","legacy_resource":"","legacy_resource_nids":"","legacy_buttons":null},{"legacy_section_type":"heading","legacy_heading":"References","legacy_subheading":"","legacy_section_text":"","legacy_media_position":"","legacy_media_file":"","legacy_media_url":"","legacy_glossary_term":"","legacy_glossary_nids":"","legacy_resource":"","legacy_resource_nids":"","legacy_buttons":null},{"legacy_section_type":"text_area","legacy_heading":"","legacy_subheading":"","legacy_section_text":"
                                    \r\n \t
                                  1. Ahern BJ, Soma LR, Rudy JA, Uboh CE, Schaer TP. Pharmacokinetics of fentanyl administered transdermally and intravenously in sheep. Am J Vet Res. 2010 Oct;71(10):1127-32.<\/li>\r\n \t
                                  2. Christou C, Oliver RA, Rawlinson J, Walsh WR. Transdermal fentanyl and its use in ovine surgery. Res Vet Sci. 2015 Jun;100:252-6.<\/li>\r\n \t
                                  3. Flecknell P. 2015. Laboratory Animal Anesthesia<\/em>. Academic Press, New York, NY.<\/li>\r\n \t
                                  4. Hefti A, Schlemmer I, Sauter-Louis C, Metzner M. Comparison of three different anesthesia procedures in calves with respect to possible pain-associated reactions. Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr. 2012 Jul-Aug;125(7-8):315-25. German. PubMed PMID: 22919925.<\/li>\r\n \t
                                  5. Muir et al. 2012. Handbook of Veterinary Anesthesia<\/em>. CV Mosby Co. St. Louis, MO<\/li>\r\n \t
                                  6. Plumb DJ. 2015. Plumb\u2019s Veterinary Drug Handbook, 8th Edition<\/em>. Blackwell Publishing. Ames, IA.<\/li>\r\n \t
                                  7. Pugh DG, ed. 2012. Sheep & Goat Medicine<\/em>. Saunders. Philadelphia, PA.<\/li>\r\n \t
                                  8. Riebold, TW. 2002. Ruminant Anesthesia. In.Greene SA, ed. Veterinary Anesthesia and Pain Management Secrets<\/em>. Philidelphia:Hanley&Belfus, Inc. p 253-262<\/li>\r\n \t
                                  9. Stock ML et al. Pharmacokinetics of intravenously and orally administered meloxicam in sheep. Am J Vet Res. 2013 May;74(5):779-83.<\/li>\r\n \t
                                  10. Torres MD et al. Effects of an intravenous bolus of alfaxalone versus propofol on intraocular pressure in sheep. Vet Rec. 2012 Mar 3;170(9):226.<\/li>\r\n \t
                                  11. Zullian C et al. Plasma concentrations of buprenorphine following a single subcutaneous administration of a sustained release formulation of buprenorphine in sheep. Can J Vet Res. 2016 Jul;80(3):250-3.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>","legacy_media_position":"","legacy_media_file":"","legacy_media_url":"","legacy_glossary_term":"","legacy_glossary_nids":"","legacy_resource":"","legacy_resource_nids":"","legacy_buttons":null}],"update_notice_type":[51,52,53],"update_notice_start":"2026-04-17 22:30:00","update_notice_end":"2026-07-17 22:30:00","update_notice_text_blocks":[{"update_notice_text":"

                                    Summary of Changes<\/strong><\/span><\/h3>\r\nThe document has been updated to reflect current practice in anesthesia and analgesia in sheep. The changes are:\r\n